Tuesday, 27 February 2018

RAKYAT

Istilah rakayt merujuk kepada orang atau individu yang tinggal dalam sebuah wilayah negara berkenaan dan juga dikenali sebagai penduduk.
Istilah rakyat juga boleh dirujuk kepada sekumpulan manusia yang disatukan oleh suatu rasa persamaan dari aspek perkongsiaan status diri sebagai warganegara di sebuah wilayah yang diduduki bersama dan terikat dengan undang-undang yang sama.

Rakyat Malaysia terdiri daripada pelbagai etnik.
Pada tahun 2008, etnik melayu dan bumiputera mewaliki 65%, cina mewakili 27.6%, India mewakili 7% dan etnik lain mewakili 0.4% daripada keseluruhan warganegara yang menetap di Malaysia. Di Semenanjung Malaysia, etnik yang dominan ialah Melayu, Cina dan India, Manakala di Sabah dan Sarawak pula wujud kepelbagaian etnik dan suku kaum. Sebanyak 32 kumpulan etnik membentuk  sebahagian daripada warganegara Malaysia di Sabah diwakili oleh kumpulah utama seperti KAdazan, Dusun, Murut dan Bajau.
Manakala sebanyak 20 kumpulan utama etnik di Sarawak diwakili oleh kumpulan utama seperti Dayak, Bidayuh, Malanau, Orang Ulu, Iban dan Penan.

Monday, 26 February 2018

KEDAULATAN

Kedaulatan dari kata akar daulat berasal daripada perkataan Latin iaitu superanus yang bermaksud keagungan atau keunggulan.
Kedaulatan sesebuah negara dizahirkan melalui kuasa sebuah negara untuk menggubal dan menguatkuasakan undang-undang, pemilikan hak sepenuhnya ke atas pemerintahan sendiri, tidak terikat dengan mana-mana pihak dalam menentukan hala tuju pemerintahan dan bebas untuk bertindak serta mempertahankan maruah negara.
Kedaulatan dapat dibahagikan kepada dua bahagian iaitu kedaulatan politik yang dimiliki oleh rakyat yang merujuk kepada kebebasan rakyat untuk memilih kerajaan dan kedaulatan sah negara yang merujuk kepada kekuasaan yang tertinggi dalam bidang ndang-undang.
Setiap negara mempunyai kedaulatan yang perlu dipelihara oleh semua rakyatnya.
Dalam konteks ini, setiap rakyat harus merujuk dan mematuhi undang-undang tertinggi negara iaitu perlembagaan sebagai salah satu mercu tanda kedaulatan.
dengan adanya kedaulatan negara, perpaduan dan kesejahteraan akan  terjamin.
Ini kerana kedaulatan politik adalah satu hak yang dimiliki oleh rakayat untuk mentukan kerajaan yang akan menerajui negara.
Dalam pada itu, kedaulatan turut menjamin lahirnya sebuah negara bangsa yang kuat di samping turut sama menaikkan martabat bangsaserta negara di persada antarabangsa.

Sunday, 25 February 2018

KERAJAAN

ELEME-ELEMEN ASAS PEMBINAAN NEGARA 

Sesebuah negara yang berdaulat mesti diperintah oleh kerajaan yang sah tanpa ada campurtangan daripada pihak luar.

Takrifan dari:

Syed Ahmad Hussein

Kerajaan sebagai satu rangkaian institusi yang mentadbir masyarakat dan negara serta merupakan alat atau jentera negara yang antara fungsinya ialah untuk mencapai matlamat, dasar dan cita-cita negara. 

Mac Iver

Kerajaan sebagai satu pertubuhan pusat yang mengekalkan satu sistem peraturan ke atas masyarakat.

 David E. Apter

Kerajaan sebagai lembaga yang mempunyai kewibawaan yang sah dalam merancang dan melaksanakan dasar-dasar bagi pembangunan sebuah negara.

Kepelbagaian bentuk kerajaan dan corak pemerintahan sesebuah negara adalah bergantung kepada sistem kerajaan yang diamalkan oleh negara tersebut.
 Antara sistem-sistem yang diamalkan ialah demokrasi, monarki, oligarki dan aristokrasi.
Malaysia mengamalkan sistem pemerintahan Demokrasi Berparlimen dan Raja Berpelembagaan yang disesuaikan mengikut geo-politik dan demokrasi negara. 
Berdasarkan kepada sistem tersebut, ketua bagi negara Malaysia ialah Yang di-Pertuan Agong manakala pentadbiran eksekutif diketuai oleh Perdana Menteri Malaysia.
Dalam pada itu, diwujudkan tiga badan utama yang akan memastikan pentadbiran dan pengurusan kerajaan Malaysia berjalan dengan lancar.
Badan-badan berkenaan ialah eksekutif, perudangan dan kehakiman di mana setiap satu daripadanya memainkan peranan tertentu.
Badan eksekutif berperanan untuk melaksanakan dan menguatkuasaanunduang-undang.
Badan perundangan berperanan sebagai pembuat dan penggubal undang-undang dan badan kehakiman berperanan untuk mengadili dan mentafsir undang-undang.
 
 

Saturday, 24 February 2018

PERANAN DAN TANGGUNGJAWAB WARGANEGARA

Sebagai anak bangsa di era pasca kemerdekaan, kita tidak perlu lagi mengangkat senjata, menghunuskankeris bagi menunjukkan semangat patriotik yang tinggi. 
Kita tidak perlu merasai pahit getir sebagaimana yang dilalui oleh para perjuang lantaran membulatkan itizam sanggup berkorban nyawa demi mempertahankan tanah air. 
Keamanan dan kemakmuran yang kita kecapi dan dirasai sekarang adalah hasil daripada pengorbanan yang dilakukan pejuang tanah air yang mempunyai semangat patriotik yang tinggi dan kental.
Justeru itu, adalah menjadi tanggungjawab anak bangsa pasca merdeka untuk mengisi kemerdekaan dengan pembangunan , keamanan dan kemakmuran.
Setiap daripada kita mempunyai peranan dan tanggungjawab yang perlu dilaksanakan baik dari segi diri, keluarga, masyarakat dan negara.
Walau apa pun bidang yang kita ceburi, laksanakanlah tugas yang digalas dengan penuh tanggungjawab, jujur, cekap dan berintegriti.
Kita haruslah sentiasa berusaha untuk mencapai kejayaan dan muncul sebagai yang terbaik.

PEMBAHAGIAN KUASA PERUNDANGAN

SENARAI BERSAMA

  1. Kebajikan masyarakat
  2. Biasiswa
  3. Ternakan
  4. Perlindungan binatang dan burung liar.
  5. Perancangan bandar dan kampung
  6. pemaritan dan pengairan
  7. pemulihan tanah lombong
  8. kutu rayau dan penjaja-penjaja beredar
  9. kesihatan awam, kebersihan dan mencegah penyakit
  10. perumahan
  11. kebudayaan dan sukan

PEMBAHAGIAN KUASA PERUNDANGAN

SENARAI NEGERI

  1. Hal ehwal agama Islam (termasuk hukum syarak)
  2. Tanah
  3. Pertanian dan perhutanan
  4. Kerajaan tempatan
  5. Jentera pentadbiran kerajaan negeri
  6. Kerja-kerja negeri dan kerja-kerja air
  7. Hari kelepasan negeri
  8. Penyu dan mengangkap ikan di sungai
  9. siasatan bagi maksud-maksud negeri
  10. Perpustakaan, muzium dan rekod purbakala dan sejarah 

PEMBAHAGIAN KUASA PERUNDANGAN

SENARAI PERSEKUTUAN

  1. Hal ehwal luar negeri
  2. Pertahanan
  3. Keselamatan dalam negeri
  4. Undang-undang sivil dan jenayah serta pentadbiran keadilan
  5. kewarganegaraan persekutuan
  6. Jentera kerajaan (tertakluk kepada Senarai Negeri)
  7. Kewangan
  8. Perdagangan dan perusahaan
  9. Perkapalan
  10. Perhubungan dan pengankutan
  11. pendidikan
  12. kesihatan
  13. buruh
  14. akhbar dan penapisan
  15. syarikat kerjasama
  16. siasatan dan penyelidikan
  17. perikanan
  18. kerjaraya
  19. kebajikan orang asli
  20. pelancongan 

ASAS KEFAHAMAN NEGARA DAN KENEGARAAN

MENJELASKAN KOMPONEN ASAS PEMBENTUKAN NEGARA MALAYSIA DENGAN TEPAT.

Negara boleh didefinisikan sebagai kehidupan oleh sekumpulan manusia yang menduduki sesebuah wilayah tetap di bawah penyelenggaraan kerajaan dan tidak tertakluk dengan kuasa luar.
Sesebuah negara yang lengkap harus mempunyai beberapa elemen utama bagi memastikan kelangsungannya.
Elemen-elemen berkenanan ialah
  • Mempunyai kerajaan
  • Mempunyai kedaulatan
  • Rakyat
  • Tanah
  • Sempadan
Realitinya, tiada sebuah negara pun di dunia yang mahukan elemen-elemen asas pembinaan negara diganggu-gugat atau dicabar termasuklah Malaysia.

Thursday, 1 February 2018


Raoult's law states that the partial pressure of a substance, A over a solution is equal to the mole fraction (XA) of A times the vapor pressure (PA) of pure A. 
An ideal solution obeys Raoult's law over the entire range of concentration. In practice, very few solutions exhibit ideal behavior.
Vapor-pressure lowering, boiling-point elevation, freezing-point depression, and osmotic pressure are colligative properties of a solution; that is, they depend only on the number of solute particles that are present and not on their nature.
In electrolyte solutions, the interaction between ions leads to the formation of ion pairs.
The van't Hoff factor provides a measure of the extent of dissociation of electrolytes in solution.
According to Henry's law, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances, which may be solid, liquids or gases.

Wednesday, 31 January 2018

Increasing temperature usually increase the solubility of solid and liquid substances and usually decreases the solubility of gases in water.
The concentration of a solution can be expressed as percent by mass, mole fraction, molarity, and molality.
The choice of units depends on the circumstances.
The ease of dissolving a solute in a solvent is governed by intermolecular forces.
Energy and the disorder that results when molecules of the solute and solvent mix to form a solution are the forces driving the solution process.
The ease of dissolving a solutein a solvent is governed by intermolecular forces.
Energy and the disorder that results when molecules of the solute and solvent mix to form a solution are the forces driving the solution process.
The simplest substances in chemistry are elements.
Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of atoms of different elements in fixed proportions.
Chemists study matter and the changes it undergoes. The substances that make up matter have unique physical properties that can be observed without changing their identity and unique chemical properties that, when they are demonstrated, do change the identity of the substances. Mixtures, whether homogeneous or heterogeneous, can be separated into pure components by physical means.

The scientific method

A scientific method is a systematic approach to research that begins with the gathering of information through observations and measurements. In the process, hypotheses, laws, and theories are devised and tested.

The study of chemistry involves three basic steps:



  1. Observations.
  2. Representations
  3. Interpretaions.
Observation refers to measurements in the macroscopic world.
Representation involves the use of shorthand notation symbols and equations for communication.
Interpretations are based on atoms and molecules which is belong to the microscopic world.

Tuesday, 30 January 2018

Explain what is meant by the scientific method?

All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what is called the scientific method, a systematic approach to research.

For example, a psychologist who wants to know how noise affects people's ability to learn chemistry and a chemist interested in measuring the heat given off when hydrogen gas burns in the air would follow roughly the same procedure in carrying out their investigations.

The first step is to carefully define the problem.
The next step includes performing experiments, making careful observations, and recording investigation.

The data obtained in a research study may be both qualitative (consisting of general observations about the system) and quantitative (comprising numbers obtained by various measurements of the system).
Chemists generally use standardized symbols and equations recording their measurements and observations. This form of representation not only simplifies the process of keeping records but also provides a common basis for communication with other chemists.

When the experiments have been completed and the data have been recorded, the next step in the scientific method is interpretation, meaning that the scientist attempts to explain the observed phenomenon. Based on the data that were gathered, the researcher formulates a hypothesis ( a tentative explanation for a set of observations). Further experiments are devised to test the validity of the hypothesis in as many ways as possible, and the process begins anew.

After a large amount of data has been collected, it is often desirable to summarize the information in a concise way, as a law.
In science, a law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions.
For example, Sir Isaac Newton's second law of motion, which you may familiar, says that the force equals mass times acceleration ( F=ma). What this law means increases the mass or in the acceleration of objects will always increase its force proportionally, and a decrease in mass or acceleration will always decrease the force.

Hypotheses that survive many experimental tests of their validity may evolve into theories. A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws that are based on them. Theories too are constantly being tested. If a theory is disproved by experiment, then it must be discarded or modified so that it becomes consistent with experimental observations. Proving or disproving a theory can take years, even centuries, in part because the necessary technology may not be available.

Scientific progress is seldom if ever, made in a rigid, step by step fashion. Sometimes a law precedes a theory, sometimes it is the other way around. Two scientists may start working on a project with exactly the same objective but will end up taking drastically different approaches. Scientists are after all human beings and their modes of thinking and working are very much influenced by their background, training, and personalities.

The development of science has been irregular and sometimes even illogical. Great discoveries are usually the result of the cumulative contributions and experience of many workers, even though the credit for formulating a theory or a law us usually given to only one individual. There is, of course, an element of luck involved in scientific discoveries but it has been said that "chance favors that prepared mind". It takes an alert and well-trained person to recognize the significance of an accidental discovery and to take full advantage of it. More often than not, the public learns only of spectacular scientific breakthroughs. For every success story, however, there are hundreds of cases in which scientists have spent years working on projects that ultimately led to the dead end, and in which positive achievements came only after many wrong turns and at such a slow pace that they went unheralded. Yet even dead ends contribute something to the continually growing body of knowledge about the physical universe. It is the love of search that keeps many scientists in the laboratory.

Chemistry: A science for the Twenty-First Century

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Chemistry is often called the central science because a basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for students of biology, physics, geology, ecology and many other subjects. Indeed, it is central to our way of life, without it, we would be living shorter lives in what we would consider primitive conditions which are without automobiles, electricity, computers, CDs and many other everyday conveniences.

Although chemistry is an ancient science, its modern foundation was laid in the nineteenth century, when intellectual and technological advances enabled scientists to break down substances into ever smaller components and consequently to explain many of their physical and chemical characteristics. the rapid development of increasingly sophisticated technology throughout the twentieth century has given us even greater means to study things that cannot be seen with naked eye. Using computers and special microscopes. For example, chemists can analyze the structure of atoms and molecules. The fundamental units on which the study of chemistry is based and design new substances with specific properties, such as drugs and environmentally friendly consumer products.

It is fitting to ask what part the central science will have in the twenty-first century. Almost certainly chemistry will continue to play a pivotal role in all areas of science and technology.